Reviews in Evidence-based Practice

Reviews in Evidence-based Practice In an era of evidence-based nursing, care providers need to base their clinical decisions on the preferences of patients, their clinical expertise, as well as the current best available research evidence relevant for practice (Beaven and McHugh, 2003; Mulhall, 1998; Sackett and Rosenberg, 1995). EBP, as a decision-making process which integrates the best available research, clinical expertise and patients characteristics (Sackett et al., 1997), is believed to be a valuable practice which lead to progress in peoples *psychosocial experiences of illness and healthcare as well as in nursing professional development (Hamer, 2005). Muir-Gray (1996) highlights that it bridges the gap between the discovery of knowledge and the time the knowledge is applied in practice, and Thompson (1998) believes it is a guarantee for doing the right things right. On this basis, systematic reviews has been found as the cornerstone of EBP, stem from Cochranes work on evidence based medicine in the late 1970s. It has been considered the gold standard for measuring the effectiveness of an intervention (NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 2001). As a secondary research method, it collates the best evidence about the clinical problem so that conclusions can be drawn about effective practices considering the potential benefits and harm (Hamer, 2005). In fact, with SR being a process for systematically identifying, scrutinising, tabulating and perhaps integrating all relevant studies, thus allowing for a more objective appraisal thatn single studies (Sackett et al., 1997), it has become an indispensable aiding tool in improving practice and quality of care particularly for busy health professionals who do not have enough time for keeping up to date with all the newest research (Greenhalgh, 1997). Obviously, SRs are important in nursing in order to discover areas where reviews and research are needed and minimise unnecessary duplication of nursing research (Sackett et al., 1997). Thus, there is a requirement to build up a process to provide the results of research findings in a concise way (Mulrow and Cook, 1997). SRs play a vital role in providing fast access to condensed up to date knowledge and offering a new opportunity for EBP in nursing (Muri-Gray, 1996). Meanwhile, SRs in EBP has a key value as it offer the best approach to determining the highest quality evidence in order to answer clinical questions or solve any conflicting findings (Roberts and Yeager, 2004). And, by adhering closely to scientific procedures, which delimit these biases, according to Schlosser (2006), then SR remains the best vehicle for practitioners to gain access to wide-ranging evidence to aid their practice. For healthcare professionals, the most important concern in the various debates surrounding EBP is what should establish the evidence for clinical practice (Egger et al., 2001). Thus, in the early 1990s, the term review of effectiveness emerged and the hierarchy of evidence based on the quality of evidence rating was headed by randomised controlled trials (RCTs)(Cooke et al., 1992). RCT is a considered a quantitative study design, which aims to reduce the bias of confusing issues, manipulate a definite intervention and inspect a possible cause-effect relationship between variables by contrasting different interventions between study groups (Cook et al., 1992). Besides RCTs, there have been additional cohort studies, case series (either post-test or pre-test), well-designed pseudorandomised controlled trials and case-control studies (Cook et al., 1992). SRs of high-quality RCTs with consistent results are considered to be top of the hierarchy of evidence, the most trustworthy evidence for studying the effects of interventions, contrasting with single RCTs which may derive a false conclusion (Kunz et al., 1998). Thornley and Adams (1998) confirmed that a single study is sometimes inadequate to detect the certainty of an intervention, differentiate between the effects of one, or to recognise the causal relationship between variables of treatments because of the small sample size of patients, which may inhibit the formation of true conclusions. This could be a medical hazard if healthcare decision makers base policies on erroneous data from single trials (Jadad and Enkin, 2007). Based on the foregoing, SR can integrate more than one study and facilitate the drawing of more real, objective, transparent conclusion to support the evidence in making clinical decisions (Sackett and Wennberg, 1998). From this standpoint, the tendency was to concentrate on SRs of RCTs and exclude other quantitative, qualitative or economic evaluation study designs (Dixon-Woods et al., 2004). On the otherhand, it has been debated that RCTs are not suitable for all circumstances (Dixon-Woods et al., 2004). For instance, if we want to explore the lived experiences of listening to music as a postoperative pain management intervention, the appropriate method to study that is through a qualitative design (phenomenology) (Greenland, 1987). Clearly, the worth of other reviews cannot be neglected because, they have a great influence in discovering the essential features of findings, which can direct future research design and clarify current levels of knowledge (Sackett and Wennberg, 1998). A closer look at the above will reveal that there are two main approaches of quantitative systematic reviews. The first is the SR of a single study design, which includes primary studies having the same study design (eg. RCTs). The second type is the systematic review, which summarises and combines the results from more than one study using statistical techniques and can sum up the outcomes of similar, but independent studies, to produce a single estimate of treatment effects (eg. Cohort studies) (Jadad and Enkin, 2007). This technique is called meta-analysis, which can provide a quantitative synthesis of the research. One of the purposes of meta-analysis is to reduce the uncertainty or controversy, and to reduce the bias and increase precision of the conclusions of a review (Sackett and Wennberg, 1998). However, the use of meta-analysis method is not necessary in every single systematic review. For instance, if the characteristics of the included studies are dissimilar or questionable, it may be inappropriate or even misleading to statistically pool results to give a meaningless summary; in this case, a narrative summary should be presented (Jadad and Enkin, 2007). A systematic review is considered to be a process to locate all studies for a specific purposeful question (drawn from research and other resources), critically appraise the methods of the studies, summarise the outcomes, present key findings, identify reasons for varied outcomes across the studies, and identify limitations of existing knowledge (Khan et al., 2003). In other words, it is a tool to collect and assess all relevant research evidence giving informative, experimental answers to scientific research questions (Evans, 2001). Systematic reviews are different from traditional literature/ narrative/ critical reviews (Khan et al., 2003). Despite often being very helpful as background reading, they have a number of disadvantages. They differ from the systematic reviews in that they are subjective, and not guided by a peer-reviewed protocol, and as such cannot be replicated; moreover, those studies that support the authors point of view are more likely to be selected (*Ravnskov, 1992). In addition, traditional narrative reviews may make different reviewers reach dissimilar conclusions from the same research bases (Teagarden, 1989). Thus, they appear lacking in rigorous scientific design to minimise the risk of biases or ensure reliability (Khan et al., 2003). The systematic review overcomes the problems which traditional narrative reviews have, through making the review process obvious. In this way, it is possible for the reader to replicate the process of the review and establish the generality and transparency of scientific findings (Egger et al., 2001). Moreover, it also provides objectivity for information by summarising the results of otherwise unmanageable quantities of research (*Ravnnskov, 1992). The rationale for undertaking a systematic review in the field of healthcare has been well established, according to Torgerson (1998) and is firmly embedded in the scientific paradigm. As the importance of EBP continues to be promoted, the profile and acceptability of systematic reviews prosper, and a constantly expanding volume of data needs to be considered by practitioners and researchers. However, it is impossible to read, critically evaluate and synthesise the state of knowledge, let alone update this regularly (Egger et al., 2001). Thus, the systematic review has become an essential tool for keeping up to date with the new evidence accumulating in a field of study. While reducing the ever-increasing torrent of published and unpublished research into manageable portions, Clarkson et al. (2003) explains that the systematic review also reduces both systematic errors (biases) and random errors (those occurring by chance). It provides a more objective, comprehensive view of the literature, which is of high quality and relevant to specific clinical practice. Yet clearly, this rationale does not exclusively apply to healthcare research. Systematic reviews can also provide raw material for establishing clinical guidelines and help plan new research by identifying existing gaps (Pearson et al., 2005). Clarkson et al. (2003) add that it can be used to formulate policy and develop guidelines on healthcare organisation and delivery. They are of particular benefit in areas of clinical uncertainty or where there is a wide variation in practice. Thus, healthcare providers, researchers and policy-makers can use systematic reviews to efficiently integrate existing information, providing data for rational decision-making. Systematic reviews not only inform clinical decision-making, but also inform the research agenda. The comprehensive searching, appraising and synthesising of research literature does not guarantee a definitive answer to a scientific research question (Clarkson and Ismail, 2003). By identifying questions for which, at present, there is insufficient good quality evidence upon which to base clinical decisions, systematic reviews highlight areas requiring further research. Conversely, the authors also point out that the results of systematic review may provide strong evidence regarding the benefits or harms of a particular intervention, and may actually preclude a new study from being conducted. Based on the foregoing Cochranes work on evidence-based medicine (NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 2001), conducting a systematic review is a gold-standard procedure for assessing the effectiveness of music as a postoperative pain management intervention. A systematic review is a piece of work / research that identifies relevant articles and synthesises the results obtained from the studies , critiquing them for their quality using a framework, possibly using a meta-analysis to help summarise the findings (Khan et al., 2003; Egger et al., 2001). They are vital tools for the healthcare practitioner/ worker/ clinician because research accumulates quickly and systematic reviews summarise large amounts of research, helping to make the information more accessible and easier to understand and use (Egger et al., Parahoo, 1997). Systematic reviews provide a reliable summary of the available evidence and this helps make clinical decisions (Lancaster et al., 1997). Reviews are a way of informing readers of patterns, strengths and limitations of the methodology used and this helps to make recommendations for future research (Parahoo, 1997). All available evidence on a specific topic is collected, analysed and synthesised (Parahoo, 1997) and by combining the information and assessing them together it is hoped that a clear conclusion can be formed (Davies and Crombie, 2003; Lancaster et al., 1997). Meta-analysis is often employed to collate primary research data from various critiqued articles and this can give an overall summary statistic or pooled estimate effect (Chalmers and Altman, 1995). Combining data from several primary studies increases the power of the result and hence allows readers to be more aware of the efficacy of the intervention (Chalmers and Altman, 1995; Lancaster et al., 1997). Systematic reviews permit a more objective view/ appraisal of the research than narrative reviews and this helps to sort out disputes between different articles (Egger et al., 2001). Narrative reviews are said to have lower quality than systematic reviews and several reasons are given for this by Egger et al., 2001. Classical reviews are subjective so are susceptible to bias and error. Systematic reviews have strict protocols whereas classical reviews do not necessarily have formal rules/ structure which may lead to error. Once studies have been identified, the author may only include studies that support their view rather than systematically looking at the evidence and the characteristicis of the study to help form a conclusion. This explains why reviewers using the classical (traditional) methods may obtain different answers and miss small but potentially significant differences. This in turn may lead to conclusions from a reviewer being associated more with the qualification and specialty of the author/ researcher/ reviewer than the presented data particularly in controversial areas. Systematic reviews are therefore more objective because all potentially relevant studies are gathered using a specific protocol, the results cna be tabulated and analysed, possibly using meta-analysis leading to a more objective appraisal which can help resolve uncertainties when study conclusions differ. Systematic reviews can highlight any conflicts or inconsistencies in the research and this can be studied (Chalmers and Altman, 1995), hence, systematic reviews have been described as being at the top of the hierarchy of evidence (Davies and Crombie, 2003). Implications from the ever expanding volumes of healthcare literature (Beaven and McHugh, 2003) means that, it is impossible for a clinician to access, let alone understand, the primary evidence that informs practice (Glasziou, Irwig and Colditz, 2001; Handoll et al., 2008). As a result of this, useful research studies and valuable findings are concealed and abandoned as a whole (Beaven and McHugh, 2003). Systematic reviews of primary studies are therefore an essential aspect of evidence-based healthcare for practitioners who want to keep up to date with evidence in making informed clinical decisions (Lipp, 2005; Glasziou et al., 2001; Handoll et al., 2008; Schlosser/ FOCUS, 2010). Commencing with a well-defined research question, such reviews utilise explicit methods to systematically identify, select, critically appraise, extract, analyse and synthesise data from relevant studies on a particular topic (Handoll et al., 2008; Petticrew and Roberts, 2006; Wright et al., 2007; Sackett et al., 2000). This process helps to minimise bias (Cook, Mulrow and Haynes, 1997), eliminate poorly conducted studies, confers power to the results that may not be given to individual studies (Lipp, 2005) and thus provide practitioners with reliable, valid and condensed evidence (Glasziou et al., 2001) in a considerably shorter period of time (Mulrow, Langhorne, and Grimshaw, 1997). Systematic reviews may involve the use of statistical methods (meta-analysis) (Handoll et al., 2008) in estimating the precision of treatment effects (Egger, Smith and ORourke, 2001). Unlike traditional narrative reviews, systematic reviews allow for a more objective appraisal of the evidence and may thus contribute to resolving uncertainty when original research, and reviews disagree (Egger et al., 2001). By using an efficient scientific technique, systematic reviews also can counteract the need for further research studies and stimulate the timelier implementation of findings into practice (Lipp, 2005). They can also inform the research agenda by identifying gaps in the evidence and generating research questions that will shape future research (Eagly and Wood, 1994; Handoll et al., 2008; Lipp, 2005). In spite of the numerous benefits of systematic reviews, they are not without challenges. Apart from being laborious (Petticrew Roberts, 2006), they require expertise in the subject matter as well as the review process (Manchikanti, 2008). Despite it being a rigorous, transparent methodology of search, appraisal, data extraction, retrieval, data synthesis and interpretation of the evidence from primary studies, there are limitations of early forms of SR methodology (associated with the hierarchy of evidence approach and advocated by the Cochrane movement) that are increasingly well recognised (Cooke et al., 1992). One of these limitations is that SR is a time-consuming process and it needs appropriate understanding of the research designs and methods together with knowledge of techniques for analysis, including statistical test (Gerrish and Lacey, 2006). Although the intention is to be systematic in the identification of studies and extraction of data, the systematic review process inherently has biases: of included studies, from poor search as well as publication related (Evans, 2001). In the same vein, language bias which exclude studies in languages other than English in the appraisal, in some way weaken the review as well (Evans, 2001). It is important to identify the most appropriate research design to fit the question. A systematic review was chosen since the research aim is to summarise lots of data collected in primary studies, which requires a systematic approach.

History project- religious development in India Essay

With the coming of the Mughals in India and the Turkish rule, there were many developments and changes in the Indian culture and religion. The Sultans of Delhi and Mughal tolerated different religions, especially Hinduism, though they were followers of Islam. This lead to the beggining of indo-islamic culture. Since dawn of history, India has been the cradle of religious developments. In the early medival period, two parrelel movements in Hinduism and Islam representing the Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged in India. The Indo-Islamic strands have been woven into the texture of India by intertwining Bhakti and Sufi traditions. Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement is a Hindu religious movement in which the main spiritual practice is loving devotion towards Shiva or Vishnu. Bhakti movement is also closely related to Sufism of Islam which rose in the same time period and both advocated ‘love of God’ as the easiest way to attain God. The Bhakti movement originated in ancient Tamil Nadu. The Nayanmars and the Alvars played a major role in the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement co-existed peacefully with the other movements in Hinduism. It was initially considered unorthodox, as it rebelled against caste distinctions and disregarded Brahmanic rituals, which according to Bhakti saints were not necessary for salvation. In the course of time, however, owing to its immense popularity among the masses it became ‘orthodox’ and continues to be one of the most important modes of religious expression in modern India. The world ‘Bhakti’ means devotion to God. The Bhakti movement had its origin in the Bhagavadgita and the Upanishads. The Bhaktas of God did not believe in any sort of caste distinctions. They advocated love and devotion to God and discarded all sorts of rituals and ceremonies. They preached oneness of God and â€Å"that all religions were but roads leading to the same goal†. Chief Principles of Bhakti Movement: The chief principles of the Bhakti movement were as follows: 1. It is Bhakti or devotion to God alone that can help man attain salvation. 2. It is important to follow a true guru for realizing God. 3. All men are equal and no one is superior or inferior. 4. Caste distinctions, rituals, fasts, etc. , are useless and lead to nowhere. 5. All men should be tolerant. Effects of the Bhakti Movement: The Bhakti movement had far-reaching effects on the people. Firstly, it helped a lot in removing the existing bitterness between the Hindus and the Muslims. Both became more tolerant towards each other. Secondly, the Bhaktas exposed the hollowness of empty rituals and ceremonies and taught the people to give up evils like belief in superstitions etc. This movement delta a blow to the superiority of the Brahmins, for it propagated the equality of all men. This also helped in checking conversions. Thirdly, the Bhakti reformers preached in the common language of the people, which gave rise to the vernacular languages such as Bengali in the east, Gujarati and Marathi in the west and Punjabi in the north. Important Bhakti Reformers Ramanuja : Ramanuja was one of the earliest reformers. His teachings were based on the Upanishads and Bhagwad Gita. he had taught in the language of the common man. Soon a large number of people became his followers. Ramananda was his disciple. Ramananda : Ramananda was the first reformer to preach in Hindi, the main language spoken by the people of the North. He was educated at Benaras. He preached that there is nothing high or low. He was an ardent worshipper of Rama. He considered God as a loving father. He lived in the 14th century A. D. Kabir : Kabir was an ardent disciple of Ramananda. He wanted unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. He preached that both the Hindus and the Muslims are the children of a single God. He had no faith in idol worship, religious rituals and ceremonies. The devotees of Kabir were known as Kabir Panthis. Chaitanya : Chaitanya, a great devotee of Lord Krishna, was a saint from Bengal. From his very childhood, he had showed great interest in education and studied Sanskrit. He married the daughter of a Saintly person. Later at the age of 24, he renounced the worldly life and became a sanyasin. His followers regarded him as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. He helped the old and the needy. He was opposed to the inequalities of the caste system. He emphasised the need for tolerance, humanity and love. He spread the message of Bhakti in Bengal. He popularised ‘Sankritan’or public singing of God’s name. He was addressed `Mahaprabhu’ by his followers. Meera Bai : Meerabai was a Rajput princess. She married the Rana of Mewar. She was a pious devotee of Lord Krishna. Her songs or hymns are even today sung all over India. Her palace was kept open to people of all castes to join her Bhajans of Lord Krishna. She had lived for the most part of her life in Mathura, the birth place of Krishna and Vrindaban. There is a temple dedicated to Meerabai in Chittor, the capital of Mewar. Sufi movement Sufism was a reform movement within Islam which applies greater stress on free thinking, liberal ideas and toleration. The Sufis believed in the equality of all human beings and brotherhood mankind. The Sufi movement started in Persia. Some of the Sufi saints also came to India. They began to preach their liberal ideas and to remove the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims and join them together. The word Sufi has been taken from the Arabic word ‘Suf’ which means wool. The movement may have been given the name Sufism because of the course wool garments they wore as a mark of their rejection of worldly things. Sufis have traditionally taken vows of poverty and celibacy. Sufism developed religious practices focusing on strict self-control that enable both psychological and mystical insights as well as a loss of self, with the ultimate goal of mystical union with God. The Sufi movement consists of fraternal orders in which leaders train and assist disciples in the mastery of Sufism’s philosophical principles and ritual practices. Such rituals and practices include writing and reciting poetry and hymns; some of the most famous and beautiful literature of the Islamic world has been written by Sufis. Sufis engage in a variety of ritual practices intended to help them realize union with God, such as distinct forms of ritual prayer including the recitation of God’s names, as well as bodily rituals such as those practices by the so-called â€Å"Whirling Dervishes,† a Turkish Sufi order that practices meditation and contemplation of God through spinning. Teaching of Sufism: 1. There is one God, the Eternal, the Only Being; none else exists save He. 2. There is only one Master, the Guiding Spirit of all souls, who constantly leads his followers towards the light. 3. There is one Holy Book, the sacred manuscript of nature: the only scripture, which can enlighten the reader. 4. There is one Religion, the unswerving progress in the right direction towards the ideal, which fulfills the life’s purpose of every soul. 5. There is one Law, the Law of reciprocity, which can be observed by a selfless conscience together with a sense of awakened justice. 6. There is one Brotherhood, the human brotherhood, which unites the children of earth indiscriminately in the fatherhood of God. 7. There is one Moral Principle, the love which springs forth from self-denial, and blooms in deeds of beneficence. 8. There is one Object of Praise, the beauty which uplifts the heart of its worshipper through all aspects from the seen to the Unseen. 9. There is one Truth, the true knowledge of our being within and without, which is the essence of all wisdom. 10. There is one Path, the annihilation of the false ego in the real, which raises the mortal to immortality and in which resides all perfection. The Sufi Movement there is no priesthood in the ordinary sense, the priesthood is only to conduct the service and to answer the need of a priest which always exists in our everyday life. Those ordained in the Sufi Movement are called Sirajs and Cherags. There is no distinction between women and men. The worthy soul is ordained; this gives an example to the world that in all places – in the church, in the school, in parliament, in court – it is woman and man together who make evolution complete. But at the same time every Sufi is a priest, a preacher, a teacher, and a pupil of every soul that he meets in the world. The Sufi prayers such as Saum and Salat are not man-made prayers. They have descended from above, just as in every period of spiritual reconstruction prayers were given. And there is every power and blessing in them, especially for those who believe. Sikhism Guru Nanak is the founder of the religion of Sikhism and is the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His birth is celebrated world-wide on Kartik Puranmashi, the full-moon day which falls on different dates each year in the month of Katak, October-November. Guru Nanak travelled to places far and wide teaching people the message of one God who dwells in every one of God’s creations and constitutes the eternal Truth. He setup a unique spiritual, social, and political platform based on equality, fraternity love, goodness, and virtue. Nanak was born on 15 April 1469, now celebrated as Guru Nanak Gurpurab. Today, his birthplace is marked by Gurdwara Janam Asthan. His parents were Kalyan Chand Das Bedi and Mata Tripta. His father was a patwari (accountant) for crop revenue in the village of Talwandi, employed by a Muslim landlord of that area, Rai Bular Bhatti. He had one sister, Bibi Nanaki, who was five years older than him and became a spiritual figure in her own right. Nanak also found work with Daulat Khan, when he was around 16 years old. On 24 September 1487 Nanak married Mata Sulakkhani, daughter of Mul Chand and Chando Ra? i, in the town of Batala. The couple had two sons, Sri Chand and Lakhmi Chand. Inspite of his married life, he spent most of his time in the company of holy men. At the age of 29, he left his home to spread the message of faith far and wide. Sikh teaching emphasizes the principle of equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender. Sikh principles encourage living life as a householder Sikh Religion and Worship: 1)A Sikh believes in, and worships only one God. 2)A Sikh regards the succession of ten gurus, and the written word of the Guru Granth, a channel through which divine light manifests as salvation. 3)Sikhs worship in the gurdwara, congregating with spiritual companions, and communing with God, by singing divine hymns selected from the Guru Granth. 4)Sikhs perform ardas, a formal prayer, and read from Guru Granth before embarking on important endeavors. 5)The uniqueness of Sikhism is upheld without any derogatory attitude towards others, or belittling of others faith. . A brief of the next 9 Gurus: http://www. sarabsanjhigurbani. com/ten-guru. asp

Is Restorative Justice More Appropriate in Dealing With...

This essay aims to make clear the system of restorative justice and its aims towards youth offending, whilst arguing points for and against the current system and whether or not it is more appropriate in terms of dealing with youth offending. It will also define restorative justice as well as defining what is meant by conventional justice. Making clear how and why these two systems came to be a part of youth justice whilst concluding as to which if either is more appropriate in dealing with youth offending behaviour. â€Å"Restorative justice is a process whereby parties with a stake in a specific offence collectively resolve how to deal with the aftermath of the offence and its implications for the future† (Munchie, 2004). Restorative†¦show more content†¦There are already existing restorative practices that are place within the conventional criminal justice system at present namely probation, restitution and community service (Zehr, 1990). Admittedly they are not readily termed restorative justice programs however they are grounded in its theory. The current conventional criminal justice process takes a more punitive, ‘retributive’ view of criminal justice. The retributive approach has become grounded into our current system of justice whereby it intends to establish blame on offenders and make them repay their debt to society by inflicting a form of punishment (Ball, 2000). The general stance in relation to the ‘retributive system’ is that its more offender-oriented and its focus is the past rather than the future (Griffiths, 1999). In addition to establishing blame, it tends to give less attention to future-oriented concerns such as how to repair the damages caused by the crime and how future recurrences can be prevented (Young, M, 1999). It has been argued that the existing ‘retributive system’ places excessive emphasis on the past whilst being less constructive towards victims, offenders and the society, as a result youths tend to get labelled as criminal from an early age leading in some cases to a life delinquent offending behaviour (Braithwaite, 1989). At present a crime is viewed as a social conflict within society, and so a crime is perceived an offense against society ratherShow MoreRelatedResearch Methodology And Legal Writing Essay3112 Words   |  13 Pagestransformation through law and thereby perceives law as a means of achieving socio economic justice and parity. iv. It provides an expert advice and gives feedback to the policy makers, legislature and judges for better formulation, enforcement and interpretation of law. v. 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Major General Anthony Wayne in the American Revolution

Major General Anthony Wayne was a noted American commander during the American Revolution (1775-1783). A Pennsylvania native, Wayne was a prominent businessman before the war and aided in raising troops during the early days of the conflict. Commissioned into the Continental Army in early 1776, he initially served in Canada before joining General George Washingtons army. Over the next several years, Wayne distinguished himself in each of the armys campaigns as well as earned famed for his victory at the Battle of Stony Point. In 1792, Wayne was appointed to lead American forces during the Northwest Indian War. Relentlessly drilling his men, he led them to victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Following this triumph, Wayne negotiated the Treaty of Greenville which ended the war. Early Life Born January 1, 1745, at the family home in Waynesborough, PA, Anthony Wayne was the son of Isaac Wayne and Elizabeth Iddings. At a young age, he was sent to nearby Philadelphia to be educated at a school run by his uncle, Gabriel Wayne. During the course of the schooling, the young Anthony proved unruly and interested in a military career. After his father interceded, he began to apply himself intellectually and later attended the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania) where he studied to become a surveyor. In 1765, he was dispatched to Nova Scotia on behalf of a Pennsylvania land company which included Benjamin Franklin among its owners. Remaining in Canada for a year, he helped found the Township of Monckton before returning to Pennsylvania. Arriving home, he joined his father in operating a successful tannery which became the largest in Pennsylvania. Continuing to work as a surveyor on the side, Wayne became an increasingly prominent figure in the colony and married Mary Penrose at Christ Church in Philadelphia in 1766.  The couple would ultimately have two children, Margaretta (1770) and Isaac (1772). When Waynes father died in 1774, Wayne inherited the company. Actively involved in local politics, he encouraged revolutionary feelings among his neighbors and served in the Pennsylvania legislature in 1775. With the outbreak of the American Revolution, Wayne aided in the raising of regiments from Pennsylvania for service with the newly-formed Continental Army. Still retaining an interest in military matters, he successfully obtained a commission as the colonel of the 4th Pennsylvania Regiment in early 1776. Major General Anthony Wayne Rank: GeneralService: Continental Army, US ArmyNickname(s): Mad AnthonyBorn: January 1, 1745 in Waynesborough, PADied: December 15, 1796 in Fort Presque Isle, PAParents: Isaac Wayne and Elizabeth IddingsSpouse: Mary PenroseChildren: Margaretta, IsaacConflicts: American RevolutionKnown For: Battle of Brandywine, Battle of Germantown, Battle of Monmouth, and Battle of Stony Point Canada Dispatched north to aid Brigadier General Benedict Arnold and the American campaign in Canada, Wayne took part in the American defeat to Sir Guy Carleton at the Battle of Trois-Rivià ¨res on June 8. In the fighting, he distinguished himself by directing a successful rearguard action and conducting a fighting withdrawal as the American forces fell back. Joining the retreat up (south) Lake Champlain, Wayne was given command of the area around Fort Ticonderoga later that year. Promoted to brigadier general on February 21, 1777, he later traveled south of join General George Washingtons army and to take command of the Pennsylvania Line (the colonys Continental troops). Still relatively inexperienced, Waynes promotion irritated some officers who had more extensive military backgrounds. Philadelphia Campaign In his new role, Wayne first saw action at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 where American forces were beaten by General Sir William Howe. Holding a line along the Brandywine River at Chadds Ford, Waynes men resisted attacks by Hessian forces led by Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen. Ultimately pushed back when Howe flanked Washingtons army, Wayne conducted a fighting retreat from the field. Shortly after Brandywine, Waynes command was the victim of a surprise attack on the night of September 21 by British forces under Major General Charles Grey. Dubbed the Paoli Massacre, the engagement saw Waynes division caught unprepared and driven from the field. Recovering and reorganizing, Waynes command played a key role at the Battle of Germantown on October 4. Statue of Brigadier General Anthony Wayne at Valley Forge. Photograph  © 2008 Patricia A. Hickman During the opening phases of the battle, his men aided in exerting heavy pressure on the British center. With the battle going favorably, his men fell victim to a friendly fire incident that led them to retreat. Defeated again, the Americans withdrew into winter quarters at nearby Valley Forge. During the long winter, Wayne was dispatched to New Jersey on a mission to gather cattle and other foodstuffs for the army. This mission was largely successful and he returned in February 1778. Departing Valley Forge, the American army moved in pursuit of the British who were withdrawing to New York. At the resulting Battle of Monmouth, Wayne and his men entered the fight as part of Major General Charles Lees advance force. Badly handled by Lee and compelled to start retreating, Wayne assumed command of part of this formation and re-established a line. As the battle continued, he fought with distinction as the Americans stood up to the attacks of British regulars. Advancing behind the British, Washington assumed positions in New Jersey and the Hudson Valley. Leading the Light Infantry As the 1779 campaigning season began, Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton sought to lure Washington out of the mountains of New Jersey and New York and into a general engagement. To accomplish this, he dispatched around 8,000 men up the Hudson. As part of this movement, the British seized Stony Point on the western bank of the river as well as Verplancks Point on the opposite shore. Assessing the situation, Washington instructed Wayne to take command of the armys Corps of Light Infantry and recapture Stony Point. Developing a daring attack plan, Wayne moved forward on the night of July 16, 1779. In the resulting Battle of Stony Point, Wayne directed his men to rely on the bayonet to prevent a musket discharge from alerting the British to the impending attack. Exploiting flaws in the British defenses, Wayne led his men forward and, despite sustaining a wound, succeeded in capturing the position from the British. For his exploits, Wayne was awarded a gold medal from Congress. Remaining outside of New York in 1780, he aided in foiling Major General Benedict Arnolds plans to turn over West Point to the British by shifting troops to the fort after his treason was uncovered. At the end of the year, Wayne was forced to deal with a mutiny in the Pennsylvania Line caused by pay issues. Going before Congress, he advocated for his troops and was able to resolve the situation though many men left the ranks. Mad Anthony During the winter of 1781, Wayne is said to have earned his nickname Mad Anthony after an incident involving one of his spies known as Jemmy the Rover. Thrown in jail for disorderly conduct by local authorities, Jemmy sought aid from Wayne. Refusing, Wayne instructed that Jemmy be given 29 lashes for his behavior leading the spy to say that the general was mad. Having rebuilt his command, Wayne moved south to Virginia to join a force led by the Marquis de Lafayette. On July 6, Lafayette attempted an attack on Major General Lord Charles Cornwalliss rearguard at Green Spring. Leading the assault, Waynes command advanced into a British trap. Nearly overwhelmed, he held off the British with a daring bayonet charge until Lafayette could arrive to aid in extricating his men. Later in the campaign season, Washington moved south along with French troops under the Comte de Rochambeau. Uniting with Lafayette, this force besieged and captured Cornwallis army at the Battle of Yorktown. After this victory, Wayne was sent to Georgia to combat Native American forces which were threatening the frontier. Successful, he was awarded a large plantation by the Georgia legislature. Postwar With the end of the war, Wayne was promoted to major general on October 10, 1783, before returning to civilian life. Living in Pennsylvania, he operated his plantation from afar and served in the state legislature from 1784-1785. A strong supporter of the new US Constitution, he was elected to Congress to represent Georgia in 1791. His time in the House of Representatives proved short-lived as he failed to meet the Georgia residency requirements and was forced to step down the following year. His entanglements in the South soon ended when his lenders foreclosed on the plantation. Major General Anthony Wayne, ca. 1795. Public Domain Legion of the United States In 1792, with the Northwest Indian War ongoing, President Washington sought to end a string of defeats by appointing Wayne to take over operations in the region. Realizing that previous forces had lacked training and discipline, Wayne spent much of 1793, drilling and instructing his men. Titling his army the Legion of the United States, Waynes force included light and heavy infantry, as well as cavalry and artillery. Marching north from present-day Cincinnati in 1793, Wayne built a series of forts to protect his supply lines and the settlers in his rear. Advancing north, Wayne engaged and crushed a Native American army under Blue Jacket at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794. The victory at ultimately led to the signing of the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which ended the conflict and removed Native American claims to Ohio and the surrounding lands. In 1796, Wayne made a tour of the forts on the frontier before beginning the journey home. Suffering from gout, Wayne died on December 15, 1796, while at Fort Presque Isle (Erie, PA). Initially buried there, he body was disinterred in 1809 by his son and his bones returned to the family plot at St. Davids Episcopal Church in Wayne, PA.